by Joelle Roth
This essay, titled ‘The 25th Hour,’ examines gender-based time inequality through the lens of feminist futures studies, weaving together personal narrative, academic research, and futures thinking methodology. Drawing on Ivana Milojević’s work on feminist futures, it analyzes how traditional societal structures systematically allocate time unequally, creating a pervasive time deficit that particularly impacts women in Southeast Asia. The essay employs Causal Layered Analysis to examine how this temporal inequality manifests across different analytical layers, from visible daily challenges to deeper mythological underpinnings.
Through an intersectional approach, the essay explores how factors such as geographic location and economic status compound women’s time poverty, while proposing transformative solutions across policy, cultural, technological, and community dimensions. By integrating personal experience with systematic analysis, the essay contributes to broader discussions about dismantling temporal inequities and creating more equitable futures for all genders.
At seventeen, I stand on the precipice of adulthood, acutely aware of the challenges that await me and countless other young women. Observing the women in my life – my mother, aunts, mentors, and teachers – I’ve witnessed a universal struggle against time’s constraints, transforming my casual observations into an investigation of how temporal disparities shape women’s lives.
Inspired by Ivana Milojević’s The Hesitant Feminist’s Guide to the Future, I’ve discovered how traditional structures systematically allocate time unequally, creating barriers to women’s advancement. While men have historically enjoyed freedom to pursue professional activities, women remain disproportionately burdened with unpaid labor and caregiving – a reality that demands radical reimagining.
When feminism first emerged, opponents used women’s supposed lack of time as an argument against suffrage, claiming women were too busy to vote or stay informed about political issues (Milojević, 2024). This control over one’s time remains crucial for determining an individual’s capacity to influence life choices.
Women’s temporal experiences reflect a complex interplay between aspirations and societal expectations. Research shows women simultaneously navigate multiple roles – professional, maternal, domestic, caregiving, educational, and more – each demanding time and energy without formal recognition or compensation (MacLeavy, 2021).
While women’s experiences vary by class, geography, and culture, their time consistently remains fragmented and undervalued, reflecting deeper social structures that limit temporal autonomy.
Growing up, I witnessed these dynamics through my mother. Her international career meant choosing work travel over school functions, creating a mix of childhood pride and longing in me. What I once saw as absence, I later recognized as intentional steps to carve out professional space in a world that demands women play multiple roles.
With maturity came understanding: my mother was actively creating new possibilities for women’s self-determination by challenging established norms.
Research shows women around the world face a significant “time deficit” compared to men. According to the United Nations, women do 2.6 times the unpaid care and domestic work globally (UN Women, 2020), including childcare, eldercare, and community volunteering – essential tasks that keep societies functioning but remain invisible and undervalued.
In Southeast Asia, this disparity intensifies. The Asian Development Bank found women spend up to 11 times more time on unpaid care work than men (Asian Development Bank, 2021). This imbalance significantly impedes women’s professional and personal development, particularly in countries like the Philippines, where traditional gender roles create what Milojević (2024) calls ‘the weight of the past’ – historical patterns that actively resist change.
The far-reaching ripple effects of time poverty
The time deficit has compounding effects on women’s lives, especially in career progression where they have less time for networking, training, or projects that could lead to promotions. Another barrier is self-promotion disparities in career advancement. A National Bureau of Economic Research working paper found women consistently rate their performance lower than men. On average, men rated themselves 61 out of 100, while women gave themselves just 46, even when participants knew these assessments would influence hiring and pay decisions (Pazzanese, 2020). This pattern of undervaluation, combined with the burden of domestic responsibilities, creates a cycle that further widens workplace inequalities.
Economically, the time spent on unpaid work, including both domestic labor and informal workplace responsibilities such as organizing office events and providing collegial support, translates to lost opportunities. In 2023, 748 million people (aged 15 or older) were not participating in the global labour force because of care responsibilities, accounting for a third of all working-age persons outside of the labour force. Of these, 708 million were women and 40 million were men (International Labour Organization, 2024). The United Nations Development Programme estimates that if women’s unpaid work were compensated at minimum wage levels, it would add $11 trillion to global GDP (United Nations Development Programme, 2024). This staggering figure underscores the immense economic value of work that is often taken for granted. In the Philippines, the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS) estimates that unpaid work contributed PHP 2.5 trillion to the economy, with around 76% of this work performed by women, highlighting the significant yet often overlooked economic impact of these efforts (Philippine Institute for Development Studies, 2019).
Moreover, the constant juggling of multiple roles often leads to increased stress and less time for self-care, potentially impacting women’s physical and mental health. A study published in the Journal of Health and Social Behavior found that women who work full time and have significant household responsibilities are more likely to experience depression and anxiety compared to their male counterparts (Offer & Schneider, 2011). In my own family, I’ve witnessed my mother’s exhaustion after long days of work. Despite her professional success, she still bears the primary responsibility for organizing family events and coordinating the myriad details of our daily lives. This ‘second shift’ at home is a reality for countless women, regardless of their professional standing.
The impact of the time deficit extends beyond individual households and careers. Girls and women may have less time for education, perpetuating cycles of inequality.
According to UNESCO, globally, 129 million girls are out of school, with household responsibilities being a significant factor in their lack of access to education (UNESCO, 2020). Time constraints can also limit women’s ability to engage in civic activities and pursue political careers, leading to underrepresentation in decision-making roles. The Inter-Parliamentary Union reports that as of 2021, women account for only 25.5% of national parliamentarians worldwide (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2021). This underrepresentation reinforces policies that ignore women’s time challenges, creating a vicious cycle.
Intersectionality and time poverty
It’s crucial to recognize that the time deficit doesn’t affect all women equally. Factors such as race, class, disability, and geographic location intersect to create varying degrees of time poverty. For instance, women in rural areas often spend more time on tasks like collecting water or fuel, further limiting their available time for education or paid work. A study by the World Bank found that women in sub-Saharan Africa spend an average of 30 minutes to over an hour per single water fetching trip (World Bank Group, 2024). Women from lower-income backgrounds may have less access to time-saving technologies or paid help, exacerbating their time deficit.
In the Philippines, for example, access to household appliances like washing machines and dishwashers can significantly reduce the time burden on women. However, these appliances remain unaffordable for many households, making tasks like washing dishes often done by hand – typically by female household help, as it is cheaper but more time-consuming, with this time often undervalued.
Envisioning a future of equitable time distribution
As we look towards the future, it’s clear that addressing the time deficit and the value of time is crucial for achieving gender equality. Futures studies itself is about temporal changes and it offers valuable approaches as discussed by Milojević in her monograph. It emphasizes the importance of realizing that the present holds signals of the future that can connect our visions with practical steps to create change now for tomorrow.
Simultaneously, it encourages us to explore multiple possible futures rather than assuming a single, predetermined outcome, often influenced by the past (Dator, 2009). It also helps us to understand that time passing from the past through the present to the future is multilinear and multidimensional (MacLeavy, 2021). By combining these perspectives, we can guide our efforts to address time inequality in terms of time scarcity and how society values women’s time, through policy, cultural, and technological interventions, while remaining open to various pathways towards a more equitable future.
At the policy level, implementing mandatory paternity leave, flexible work arrangements, and subsidized child care can help redistribute unpaid care work more equitably.
Countries like Sweden have shown the effectiveness of such policies. Sweden’s generous parental leave policy, which includes three months reserved specifically for fathers, has led to more equal sharing of childcare responsibilities and improved work-life balance for both men and women (Swedish Institute, 2021).
These measures need to be complemented by a cultural shift that challenges societal gender norms. Such a shift would address the dual issues of placing the burden of unpaid work primarily on women and undervaluing women’s time. This cultural transformation should start early, promoting equal sharing of household and other family responsibilities from childhood. Educational programs that teach boys and girls about gender equality and shared responsibilities and opportunities can help shape future attitudes. In Japan, for example, home economics classes that teach cooking and household management are mandatory for both boys and girls, helping to break down traditional gender roles (Branlat & Sano, 2021). While a focus on shared domestic responsibilities is crucial, it’s equally important to empower girls with the belief that they can aspire to any role and that they can aim for self-realization. We must emphasize that positions of power, influence, and economic leadership are not exclusive to men but must be “owned by women” too. The most significant transformation, however, occurs when both genders – girls and boys, women and men – collaborate to create and negotiate a future based on true partnership in all aspects of life (Milojević, 2024).
Technology and innovation can play a significant role in alleviating time burdens, but we must ensure these solutions are accessible to all women, not just those in privileged positions. The development of affordable, energy-efficient household appliances could significantly reduce the time spent on domestic chores. In rural Kenya, for example, the introduction of solar-powered water pumps has significantly reduced women’s time spent on water collection, freeing up hours previously spent on manual water gathering for income-generating activities (UNESCO, 2023).
In the workplace, adopting gender-sensitive policies that acknowledge employees’ multiple roles outside of work and that openly discuss gender stereotypes is crucial. This could mean flexible hours, remote work options, promoting leaders who are caring, compassionate and strong in building teams and partnerships and cultivating a culture that values output over facetime. These changes not only benefit women but can lead to increased productivity and job satisfaction for all employees. A study by Deloitte found that organizations with inclusive cultures are six times more likely to be innovative and agile (Deloitte, 2018).
Community-based initiatives can also be powerful tools for time redistribution. In my neighborhood in the Philippines as well as in Germany, there are informal childcare collectives where families take turns watching each other’s children. These grassroots solutions not only help distribute care responsibilities more broadly but also foster a sense of community and mutual support. Similar models could be applied to elder care and other domestic responsibilities, creating a network of support that eases the time burden on individual women.
Education and awareness campaigns are equally important in driving change. By integrating discussions about time use and gender roles into educational curricula, we can shape more equitable attitudes in future generations. This education should extend beyond schools into workplaces and communities, challenging ingrained assumptions about women’s roles and responsibilities. The HeForShe campaign, initiated by UN Women, is an excellent example of a global effort to engage men and boys as agents of change for gender equality (UN Women, 2014).
Transformation towards a time-equitable future
Reimagining time equality requires more than redistributing hours and minutes. It calls for a world where women’s contributions are inherently valued, where time flows equally across genders, enabling meaningful societal participation without systemic constraints.
Support networks are crucial in dismantling time inequality. My mother’s journey exemplifies this – her success hinged on my father’s unwavering support, treating time as a shared resource rather than a gendered commodity. This collaborative approach is not universal, highlighting the systemic challenges women face.
Our extended family and community, including our Ates (a Filipino term for older sisters or respected female elders), Myra and Amy, played pivotal roles in creating a supportive ecosystem. Their collective care and understanding enabled my mother to balance nurturing and professional ambitions – a delicate negotiation many women confront.
As Milojević (2024) argues in her vision for feminist futures, addressing time inequality requires fundamentally reimagining societal time distribution and the value we give time. My mother’s experience illuminates both our progress and the ongoing work needed to create truly equitable temporal landscapes.
Causal Layered Analysis for transformation
At the most visible level, we see a world emerging where gender parity in executive and political roles becomes the norm. Women gain equal power over their time allocation, with protected space for professional development and personal growth – no longer sacrificing advancement for care needs and societal expectations. Universal childcare and eldercare systems support this transformation.
These visible changes anchor deeper systemic reforms. The care economy becomes integral to GDP measurements, while education nurtures care skills across genders. Workplace success focuses on impact rather than time spent. Traditional masculine leadership traits give way to more inclusive, collaborative approaches – qualities previously labeled ‘feminine’ but now recognized as essential human attributes.
This restructuring reflects a fundamental shift in viewing care work and leadership. Care work becomes recognized as essential, while women’s right to self-development equals their capacity to care for others. Success is redefined through balance and sustainability, moving beyond metrics of competition and control.
The transformation roots itself in new metaphors that reshape our understanding. Hierarchical structures become a “Web of Care,” mechanical time transforms into a “Community Heartbeat,” and linear careers evolve into a “Circle of Life.” Time itself shifts from commodity to flowing resource, while leadership becomes a garden of diverse growth paths.
The future I envision is one where my future daughter doesn’t have to choose between career and family, where she won’t carry the burden of unpaid work alone, and where her time will be valued equally. It’s a future where women lift each other up, creating networks that challenge and dismantle the structures leading to time inequality.
Table 1: Causal Layered Analysis (Inayatullah, 2023)
| Dimension | The issue of time inequality today | Time equality in the future |
| Litany |
|
|
| Social & Structural |
|
|
| Worldview |
|
|
| Myth/Metaphor |
|
|
| the spaces in between | women’s achievements bloom like vibrant sunflowers reaching skyward, while men’s contributions weave through like complementary vines, each enhancing the other’s growth |
Throughout this essay, I’ve explored the 25th hour – a metaphor for the unequal demands placed on women’s time. Beyond time management, this represents a deeper struggle for recognition and equality. My research reveals both the global nature of time inequality and emerging solutions. By naming these challenges and proposing changes, we move toward a society where everyone’s time is equally valued.
In the process of writing this essay, I utilized AI-assisted technologies for language refinement, and to help structure my thoughts. However, all ideas, arguments, and personal anecdotes are my own. The AI tools were used as assistants to enhance my writing process, not to generate original content or conclusions. This disclosure is made in the interest of transparency and in compliance with the journal’s guidelines on the use of AI in academic writing.
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