Article
Valentina Facoetti1, Laura Galluzzo1, Ambra Borin1*
1Department of Design, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Abstract
This article investigates the emerging need for project-based teaching approaches within educational systems, showing the advantages of adopting design tools and methodologies. The focus centred on the potential of Service Design approach as a tool for activating participatory practices aimed at raising awareness of social coexistence and creating valuable relationships. The research presents an analysis and classification of case studies concerning educational spaces, services, tools and processes to understand how design can activate innovation practices in the field of education.
Keywords
Participatory Design, Community-Centred Design, Educational Approaches, Sustainable Education, Learning Environments
Introduction
The advent of Agenda 2030 and the specific goal related to education have drawn attention to the need to think together about a new reorganisation of the education and training systems of European schools. This reorganisation has been discussed for a long time within the institutional landscape. Still, it often encounters difficulties in its implementation and transformation, which means reformulating a new relationship between education and society. What is emerging in our communities is the need not only to acquire basic skills but, above all, to address emerging social issues through education in terms of democratic culture, equality, acceptance, sharing and collaboration. More than ever, within our communities, we find people living side-by-side who hold different beliefs, backgrounds and outlooks. This enriching of European societies must be celebrated, but it also requires us to think carefully about nurturing shared values around which to organise our societies (Barrett, 2016). Education, therefore, plays a primary role as “learning must prepare students and learners of all ages to find solutions for the challenges of today and the future” (UNESCO, 1970). The first step to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) together is education, which should be transformative and “allow us to make informed decisions and take individual and collective action to change our societies and care for the planet” (UNESCO, 2015). The thrust for Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) by UNESCO has never been greater. When the international community is called upon to define and launch new initiatives for peace, well-being, prosperity and sustainability, educational systems are also called upon to foster the development and formation of Citizens of Sustainability (Wals, 2015). Education systems must respond to this pressing need by defining learning objectives and content, introducing pedagogies capable of empowering learners and urging institutions to include sustainability principles in their management structures (Rieckmann, 2017).
The United Nations (2015) propose 9 points related to Goal 4, presenting targets and tools for implementation. In particular, point 4.7 is interesting as it offers a broad view of education. Schools must step outside the perimeter of the rigid and traditional education system, promoting recursive experiences in contact with the closest nature, along with others that allow students to intertwine study and research with real life in various everyday contexts. This passage emphasises the importance of the acquisition of “capabilities” (Nussbaum & Sen, 1993) as a way of acting, doing and being that typically constitute human life and distinguish it from other natural or possible forms of life. In this perspective, Goal 4 is oriented towards a “neo-liberal framework, towards a learning design that values, develops, assesses, and accredits a broader set of student outcomes” (Crick et al., 2021). This approach contrasts with most schools today, where cognitive outcomes are highly valued and rewarded at the expense of technical, practical, social and empathic skills. As Rieckmann (2017) highlighted, ESD requires a holistic approach to pedagogy and assessment, moving education from teaching to learning. It requires a transformational, action-oriented pedagogy that supports self-directed learning, participation and collaboration, a problem-solving approach, inter- and trans-disciplinarity and linking formal and informal learning.
In the next future, the innovation process for education and training systems should commence with the promotion of openness within the school, by fostering permeability of space and experience between the external environment and the internal school setting. This article investigates the importance of participatory processes and the involvement of the educating community as tools for the implementation of flexible learning models that follow the development needs of students. The revision of methodological models allows innovations to be introduced in the educational method and initiates a process of redesign the ways in which education is offered. The authors try to provide a new perspective on the introduction of didactic approaches based on participatory design within educational systems, showing the advantages of adopting design tools and methodologies. The article illustrates academic research that provides theoretical background on the main issues related to the role of education in achieving the SDGs – considered as a starting point for innovation in education systems – by discussing possible design solutions for rethinking our learning and education frameworks. Through an in-depth analysis of 20 case studies, the research introduces how Service Design methods can provide support for different moments of the learning experience.
Methodology
The theoretical framework of the research was supported by an in-depth analysis of 20 case studies that allowed the authors to investigate in detail the approaches, practices and activities that foster the development of innovative educational processes.
The research was conducted in two phases. Initially, the authors conducted a review of the pedagogical literature on existing European primary school educational models, with particular attention to the Italian panorama, and the new European directives that are initiating a profound revision of these models with a view to defining more sustainable educational systems. The aim of this analysis was to define design opportunities to theorise the introduction of participatory design approaches within educational processes. Secondly, the case studies were selected according to three specific parameters: innovative schools, educational approaches and design toolkits. Considering that the pedagogical and educational theoretical framework refers to the European geographical area, the case studies relating to the first two types (innovative schools and educational approaches) are European. Instead, the selection of the design toolkits considered worldwide best practices as these do not have repercussions on specific educational theories but are intended to illustrate possible participatory design approaches.
The case studies were then analysed using the positioning map tool with the aim of bringing out the most relevant insights for discussion. The cases were analysed according to two parameters, which correspond to the two axes of the positioning map. The ordinate axis refers to participation, understood as a tool for activating and evolving educational processes. The x-axis, on the other hand, indicates the reference context, understood as the relationship between the space and the actors involved. Thus, we move from case studies that can be static or dynamic thanks to the active participation of users and applied in local or networked contexts.
Fig. 1: Positioning map axes (by the authors)
Beyond Standard Curricula: Areas for Improvement And Opportunities For Innovation
The twentieth century was characterised by “public education essentially aimed at supporting national citizenship and development efforts through the form of compulsory schooling for children and young people” (International Commission on the Futures of Education, 2021). Traditional education systems (i.e. based on the acquisition of cognitive skills, structured by age groups and adopting standardised curricula) have wrongly emphasised the values of individual success, competition and economic development to the detriment of relationships, interdependencies, mutual care and solidarity (Robinson, 2010). This results from a mindset that does not consider the long-term sustainability of our shared living. A new “social contract for education” (International Commission on the Futures of Education, 2021) must enable us to think differently about learning and the relationships between students, teachers, knowledge and the world, and help create a culture that embodies values such as equity, inclusion and democratic participation (Council of Europe, 2020).
In the long and troubled process of school reform, there are interesting points for reflection on future innovative didactics and pedagogical approaches. To educate comes from “educere” and means “to bring out the best potential” in each person. It is an operation that involves not only knowledge of the human being but also continuous dedication, caring and attention to others, without pre-established schemes on the part of teachers, who should encourage full active involvement. Today more than ever is necessary to bear this definition in mind to recover a global dimension of the human being in educational innovation. The whole person must be involved in the educational process, considering its various anthropological and existential dimensions and social, religious, moral and spiritual aspects (European Education Recommendations 2006; European Education Recommendations, 2018). In this sense, participatory processes facilitate the acquisition of transversal competences. Educational guidelines emphasise the centrality of participation in educational services and schools. These practices positively affect the well-being and learning of the youngest children. However, it has benefits for all those involved – children, family members, educators, teachers, operators, to the community as a whole – helping to strengthen the educating community. The approach to participation within a class is based on the sharing of the purpose and objectives by all those involved, the adaptability of the actions in terms of the time and manner of those taking part and finally the involvement of all actors in analysing and evaluating the process and the results achieved (Berritto, 2021). More generally, the participation of the community appears as an active process in which the potential beneficiaries have the opportunity, first of all, to be involved and then to direct the project itself in ways that can be positive for them: the participation of the recipients of the benefit is a central element, as well as their possibility to act within the project in dialogue with those who propose it (Guerra & Ottolini, 2019).
In this regard, Dewey’s (2018) “social organism” refers to the concept of a community, i.e., a social entity in which there are very close links between individuals. Creating a community in which a single is an active player in the development of the community is a long-term process that begins with experimentation within a protected space. The school has the task of providing individuals with the tools to develop a methodology of action individually and in a group. When the school, the families and the territory are in synergy, we can define it as an educating community. The school can therefore be seen as a point of convergence of the social dynamics of the city. The educating community is the set of territorial actors committed to ensuring the well-being and growth of children. The purpose of education in this scenario is to enable the individual to carry out his or her actions of inventiveness and critical vitality (Rizzuto, 2020), enabling the community’s development and progress. Within the educating community is established a reciprocal relationship between education and the territory to which it belongs, considering the latter as a place where the citizen can intervene by improving the structure of the community itself. In short, a community that intends to develop promotes the growth of its actors, depending on the expansion of the educational possibilities of the community: a continuous and mutual transformation, not a simple adaptation (Valenzano & Zamengo, 2018).
The role of the educating community is fundamental for the definition of a complete educational experience in connection with reality. In addition to designing educational paths with local actors, it is crucial to disseminate and acquire new teaching practices to improve and innovate the educational process. The networking of schools represents one area of opportunity. Starting from the observation that often unprecedented and potentially innovative teaching practices arise from the exceptionality of a single person or are the result of a context that produces alchemy, the change generated risks remaining confined to the original environment without being able to emerge. From this point of view, schools and teachers should be provided with the right tools to create the conditions for implementing transferable and sustainable innovations. Through networking, some more established experiments can be made available to be implemented and tested in other school contexts. These processes enable educators to identify new educational practices, evaluate, test, and share them, producing documentation and tangible tools for self-training educational practices.
Design And Education: A Systemic Approach To Design Learning Experiences
Design has always been involved in discussing school design, both from a spatial/furniture point of view and in terms of defining new learning experiences. From a historical excursus, the relationship between design and school has been based on the application of a systemic approach between three main elements: the users, the context – understood both as a physical place and as a sociocultural space – and the technological evolution (Zurlo & Maurer, 2022).
Design discipline has gradually shifted its focus from the product of furniture and space to the educational experience. Initially, between the early twentieth century and the 1950s, the relationship between design and education had its most significant expression in school furniture design. This period saw a succession of projects relating primarily to desks and seats that evolved over the years in form and materials. As well as, after 1960, new pedagogical theories also began to spread in Italy, and design began to give more attention. Emblematic is the example of the Reggio Children schools based on an educational philosophy founded on the image of a child with strong potential for development and a subject of rights, who learns through the languages belonging to all human beings and who grows in relationship with others. The period of the Sixties opened with a new idea of the classroom proposed within the XXII Triennale of Milan. The project “La Casa e la Scuola” presented a free configuration of furniture, which defined differentiated spaces in work areas. The teacher was no longer the focus of the classroom but played the role of observer and facilitator, leaving the children to conduct the activities. This proposal was extremely innovative to the ideals of that century and considerably anticipated some future didactic experiences.
In the following years, the attention of designers shifted from furnishing objects to new pedagogical theories and tools to support didactics, especially concerning childhood. Bruno Munari was the designer who dedicated the most effort to studying and evolving new educational approaches. Thanks to his collaboration with Corraini Editore, he started designing and realising a series of games conceived for learning. This evolution shifted the focus to the process rather than the goal to be achieved. Munari’s research concludes with the letter “Educating Educators” in 1992, where he places attention on the role of the educator. The teacher has a central role in the learning that must be delivered to children, and education must pass through knowing how to do it, almost from a design perspective. In recent years, design has focused its attention on specific contexts and developing areas, where the central theme of the design is access to education itself and the means of education.
In the last decade, schooling has again become central, emphasised in the last two years by the changes and evolutions brought by the pandemic of Covid-19. In this scenario, the authors wonder how the design discipline can use the three variables (users, context and technology) to transform learning into a learning experience. One of the possible answers is Service Design (Zurlo & Maurer, 2022), defined as the design for experiences that reach people through many different touchpoints and that happens over time (Livework, 2018). Additionally, Service Design considers the interactions between the service and the users. Services can facilitate learning through platforms that enable student capabilities. If learning looks like an experience, the school is no longer a container but a space for educational relationships (Zurlo & Maurer, 2022). Educational platforms can connect different users and stakeholders through a collaborative approach. By its nature, design can integrate different knowledge in a multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach.
The transformation of learning into an educational experience responds to two main issues: the first is related to how is provided with the educational service and the second is linked to the need to produce a social transformation within the school places. Applying Service Design methodology, developing a mindful solution while promoting social innovation is possible. As Manzini (2015) stated, “Design for Social Innovation is everything that expert design can do to activate, sustain and orient process of social change toward sustainability”. In addition, Design for Social Innovation refers to a vast field, from the intersection of the entire range of social innovation phenomena with expert design in all its contemporary shapes and forms. It is, therefore, a constellation of activities, each characterised by a different sense of these two terms. In this definition, Service Design can be understood as an approach to foster social innovation through shared practices. Thanks to the structured way of addressing challenges, it is a defined but flexible process for problem-solving, and also can be confirmed, both the Design for Social Innovation and Service Design processes have a holistic and multidisciplinary approach.
The Role of Design in The Transformation of Educational Paradigms
When design operates as a social mediator in different contexts, it offers the possibility to cultivate its culture to transform and develop innovation (Manzini, 2015). For this reason, transferring a design culture into schools and education systems is a phenomenon that can bring several benefits, both to students and to the school itself. Indeed, design culture can intervene by proposing an approach to teaching based on the design process or appear as “a specific attitude towards change and a sense of agency that can be seen within the school as an organisation and in relation to the outside world” (Pierandrei & Marengoni, 2017).
Since the post-war period, the Italian school system has undergone numerous revisions in terms of its structure, especially concerning educational cycles, teacher training and the modulation of hours per subject. However, this contrasts with the few changes and innovations in curricula and educational plans. The point is that our educational system was conceived and designed for a different era. It was developed in the intellectual culture of the Enlightenment and the economic circumstances of the first industrial revolution (Robinson, 2010). Education has never been conceived as a neutral process of developing people’s natural abilities. School systems have therefore been constructed by exalting the model of scholastic intelligence (Robinson, 2015), which neglects all individual abilities related to creativity and innovation. Moreover, the transformation of education systems should address the real needs of the 21st century and foster the development of future citizens through a completely different vision of human intelligence and creativity. Robinson (2015) states, “Creativity is about making connections and is usually fostered by collaboration rather than individual effort”. Future generations need to be more empathic, collaborative, critical and creative. Learning processes and knowledge sharing are crucial in making this happen. For this reason, design can facilitate the transformation process and offer the possibility to introduce new methods and tools to participate actively in social discussion.
The intervention of design, as stated by Pierandrei and Marengoni (2017), would promote change within the school by allowing students to gain more active control over their learning process. It also offers the school the opportunity to absorb methodologies that can be used to improve the educational experience, thus transforming the school into a learning organisation. In particular, the Service Design methodology can be considered a tool for implementing cultural change.
When we refer to the Service Design approach, we mean to consider a methodology that sees the human being at the centre of the discussion (Clatworthy, 2017), in which attention is paid to the process and the complex system of information, analysing, in detail the interpersonal relationships and contextual dynamics within which they exist. This methodology, when transferred to other contexts, which do not necessarily have to do with design, allows for an “exploratory process that aims to create new kinds of value relation between different actors within a socio-material configuration” (Clatworthy, 2017). In this scenario, educational action is thus process-oriented rather than outcome-oriented. In this perspective, educators might also be more oriented to connect the educational experience with the broader context of interpersonal relationships, environmental influences, everyday life and territory. “Thus, educating through Design will help children to use their creativity beyond the limits of expression and as a tool to become critical thinkers and problem solvers, to form a future generation of more knowledgeable individuals” (Pierandrei & Marengoni, 2017).
Human beings are social, meaning that many skills develop through interaction with others. Learning is a social process that enables them to share, discuss, observe and copy methods to try on their own. The design of the educational spaces, approaches and methods enable them to get together. They can communicate, engage and learn with and from each other (Hudson et al., 2020). Skills for the 21st century involve especially social abilities, in terms of the ability to relate to others and face shared challenges for a better coexistence. It is necessary to create learning contexts that encourage different behaviour patterns from everyone, both students and teachers. The role of design experts in the participatory design process fosters the creation of an ethical, fair and open platform where expertise can be transferred through effective processes and problems can be turned into solution-oriented opportunities (Pierandrei et al., 2018).
Analysis and Classification of Case Studies
The involvement of design in educational planning is a recent phenomenon and therefore still an open field. The role of design in this context is to improve social and community well-being by encouraging active participation (Guerra & Ottolini, 2019). Design culture is a tool to implement a process of cultural change. The potential of design lies in its ability to provide a set of tools and methods that will foster the creation of engaging learning experiences and support organisational change. The collection and analysis of the case studies were crucial to defining the area of project opportunity in this direction.
The first classification examined best practices of schools that implement innovative curricula and educational vision, thus integrating educational approaches with a space design respectful of children’s needs to offer more sustainable growth and education. For example, the Primary School in Chiarano (Italy) integrates into its approach a great openness towards the territory and the influence of the educating community. The architecture of the school represents this concept very well. The building is porous, allowing the territory and the light to flow inside the spaces. The library is the core of the project and has been considered an urban space for the community since it is kept open after school hours. The community has been involved in the project with a particular theatre play, in which architects, working with the children of Chiarano’s primary schools, a drama teacher and a musician interacted to shape the design and the construction of the future school. The theatre project has not a didactic purpose but the idea of introducing the new construction to the community through a strong shared, and enjoyable experience. Similarly, Scuola-Città Pestalozzi in Florence (Italy) promotes the participation of pupils and teachers with the educating community. Scuola-Città Pestalozzi is today an experimental, state-run school in the eight years of primary and secondary school, organised in four two-year periods and in relation to preschool and upper secondary school. The school is firmly committed to implementing methodological and didactic experimentation forms, which promote the renewal of curricula through laboratory-based teaching. Instead, schools as Vittra School Telefonplan (Sweden), Stephen Perse Foundation Junior School (United Kingdom) and H-Farm School (Italy) design and implement study paths that are based on a multidisciplinary, collaborative, experiential and concrete approach through group activities, workshops and debates. The unique pedagogy of these schools required a spatial organisation that went beyond the traditional classroom. The learning space serves as an educational tool and catalyst. The school offers spaces for learning situations where students can work whether sitting, lying down or standing. Students can be absorbed in projects in one of the flexible labs or do group work and stand under a tree in the common area.
On the other hand, the second category of case studies analyses educational approaches, i.e. the set of tools, actions and procedures by which educators educate the child’s cultural formation. Educational approaches may be embraced by the whole school, which begins to shape its educational offerings around that model, or the approach may consist of just a few specific areas/activities that some teachers decide to introduce into the curricula. The analysis of educational approaches can be helpful in defining more general and systemic strategies to be applied in school contexts. Some cases referring to the first definition are Montessori Approach (Italy), Reggio Emilia Approach (Italy) and Changemaker schools (UK). For example, the Reggio Emilia Approach is based on the relationship of all the actors present in the schools, the involvement of families, the environment as educators, continuous innovation, and pedagogical and educational research. Participation is one of the central core issues of the method: the hundred languages of children and human beings are considered a plurality of points of view and cultures, generating participation. Space also plays an important role. The indoor and outdoor spaces of the nursery and preschool are designed and organised in interconnected forms and are offered as places of coexistence and research for children and adults.
Educational approaches can also refer to a series of processes and activities that are developed and tested independently by free groups of educators, teachers, and pedagogues. In this case, the success of this research and experimentation lies in the ability to create robust relational networks between educators and schools to disseminate and share different educational experiences. This sub-categorisation includes the cases of Scuola Senza Zaino (Italy), Movimento di Cooperazione Educativa (Italy), and Movimento Avanguardie Educative (Italy). For example, the Movimento di Cooperazione Educativa is a free and autonomous group of teachers who continue to develop experimentation and research, focusing on promoting cultures, dialogue and listening. The Movement’s educational approach regards the classroom, whether physical or relational, as a place of expressive and creative freedom where learning stimulates global, affective, cognitive and social growth. The educational approach is based on three manifestos: the pedagogical manifesto, the manifesto for democratic language education and the manifesto on mathematics teaching. Manifestos are translated into practical actions that teachers can implement to make the school a generator of change.
Finally, there are examples of educational approaches from the design discipline that attempt to put experiential learning into practice through laboratory activities or workshops. The design school for children of PACO Design Collaborative (Italy) and The Design Lab of ICS Milan International School (Italy) are cases where classroom teachers collaborate with professional designers to develop design labs which stimulate the curiosity and inventiveness of the children. The Design School for Children is a container of initiatives for developing and disseminating design culture and design methods in the education of children and young teenagers. It offers different initiatives such as design hackathons, workshops, and school programs for kids, young teenagers, educators and teachers. These formats addressed educators’ and teachers’ proposed path and supported the implementation of traditional educative methods with Design Thinking and design methods. ICS Milano’s Design Labs are design workshops integrated into the school curriculum. The labs focus on topics generally covered in the school curriculum and offer children the opportunity to become critical and creative thinkers by proposing and realising projects related to the topics explored in class. Children are encouraged to connect with their prior knowledge during the design labs and deepen their understanding throughout the unit.
The last category of case studies analyses the toolkit to disseminate educational practices that can easily be applied in school environments making small changes in traditional curricula. Some of the examples presented in this article do not relate to the field of education but were analysed to better understand the toolkit’s structure, tools and approach as a means of activating collaborative processes. Toolkits are designed to address multiple distinct knowledge areas; can be described as open systems (Conole & Oliver, 2002) that continually evolve based on the context in which they are applied. Another attractive feature of toolkits is that they do not require prior expertise. As a matter of fact, toolkits rely on triggering dialogues between stakeholders who combine their skills and knowledge for the common good. In the educational context, toolkits are the design tools that can be provided to teachers and educators to supplement existing pedagogies with new exploration methods, considering the skills of all the people involved.
Regarding design applications within educational spaces, teachers and children are equally involved in the transformative process. Educators assume the role of facilitators, who pose and frame the challenges and questions to be addressed. Toolkits based on design thinking processes enable creative processes in students and empower teachers to create effective learning environments. The Co-Designing School Toolkit by IDEO offers the possibility for teachers to be entrepreneurial designers of the “systems” of schools. Through the application of shared tools, teachers can initiate a transition process towards a more resilient school.
Fig. 2: Case study positioning map (by the authors)
Future Design Thinking in Education
The positioning map was fundamental to understanding the areas of design opportunity from which to begin reflection around the involvement of design in educational experiences. This analysis has produced a current snapshot of the degree of innovation of educational processes in European schools and how design could fit into these processes today through the use of participatory design tools.
Based on what emerged in the research, the authors observed that the most successful educational experiences have been those that have enthusiastically embraced the opportunities offered by situations or by the impetus of some enlightened educator. These experiences are characterised by three common elements: the definition of an educational community oriented towards the achievement of common objectives, the consideration of gaps as social opportunities and the opening of the school towards the local territory. The discussion about the ‘openness of the school’, however, refers to the idea that schools open not only to the outside world but also to new cultural influences that can encourage the start of transformative processes. On the one hand, spatial openness allows schools to be a space for social relations, welcoming local actors in participatory activities. On the other hand, schools are transformed into hybrid spaces where citizens can carry out different activities depending on the time of day. In this way, the school opens culturally, i.e., it expands its network of influences and knowledge to enrich its cultural background. In this scenario, design discipline, as has been shown in the previous good practices, have the role of stimulating the process of opening the school at different levels – to family, associations, institutions, etc. – favouring the creation of networks with actors in the educating community. Design tools make it possible to co-design educational experiences starting from students’ needs and making the best use of available resources. The value of participatory design processes and design practices lies in the possibility of creating different experiences by adapting to different contexts and situations, scaling activities and objectives to needs and desires, testing short-term actions to develop long-term transformative processes.
Participatory design approaches to learning have direct benefits with respect to the theories and objectives of transforming the educational systems expressed in the theoretical framework:
- Design allows students to learn to solve open problems, outside closed systems, developing the ability to transfer knowledge between fields and to generalise, magnify and see the underlying complexity.
- Design tools offer children the possibility of approaching activities in different ways, according to their natural aptitudes and inclinations, working together to achieve a common result.
- Design approaches help children to exercise different intelligences: visual, verbal or gestural, etc.
- From a relational point of view, a project-based approach implies a lot more emphasis on collaboration and empathy than a traditional lecture set-up.
Conclusion
Design culture, when embedded in educational systems, encourages the development of participatory processes in designing and implementing new educational approaches and in the practice of these. Active involvement starts with teachers and children and goes as far as involving parents and the educating community. Indeed, participatory education processes also develop the community dimension within schools and classrooms, involving external stakeholders such as local authorities, organisations and associations.
Furthermore, active participation allows for developing a micro-educational direction, according to a pedagogical interpretation of community development, that can cultivate the substantive and not only the formative dimension of democracy. Experiences of participatory planning through workshops or simple toolkits have highlighted the effectiveness of these tools as regenerative actions, which can help teachers reorganise and redesign traditional teaching activities, making them more engaging and compelling and activating new capabilities. The design processes resulting from the mobilisation of individual and collective energies lead to creation of environments and spaces that can better express the culture of the place in all its multiple aspects (Berritto, 2021). The tools and approaches in participatory design are fundamental to support the process and provide strategies that can be strategic to the promotion of participation.
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